Indian Consumer Behavior

CONSUMER LIFESTYLES IN INDIA (NOVEMBER 2004) 1. INTRODUCTION This report analyses consumer lifestyles in India and forms part of a 52-country series that complements the Euro monitor Consumer Lifestyles Database. Each country profile is structured under the following sub-headings: †¢ Population †¢ Consumer segmentation †¢ Regional development †¢ Home ownership †¢ Household profiles †¢ Labour †¢ Income †¢ Consumer and family expenditure †¢ Health †¢ Education †¢ Eating habits †¢ Drinking habits †¢ Shopping †¢ Personal grooming †¢ Fashion †¢ Leisure †¢ Savings †¢ Media †¢ Communications Transport †¢ Tourism The information in this report was gathered from a wide range of sources, starting with the national statistical agencies. This information was cross-checked for consistency, probability and mathematical accuracy. Secondly, we sought to fill in the gaps in the official National statis tical offices by using private sector surveys and official pan-regional and global sources. Furthermore, Euromonitor has carried out an extensive amount of modelling in order to come up with interesting data sets to complement the national standards available. The wide range of sources used in the compilation of this report means that there are occasionally discrepancies in the data which we were not able to reconcile in every instance. Even when the data is produced by the same national statistical office on a specific parameter, like the total population in a particular year, discrepancies can occur depending on whether it was derived from a survey, a national census or a projection and whether the data are mid-year or January. For slow trends, data are presented for 1990, 1995 and 2000-2003. Where it is interesting to look at projections, the data encompasses 1990, 1995, 2000, 2005, 2010 and 2015. Fast-moving trends such as communications are illustrated with data sets relating to 1990, 1995, 2000-2005, 2010 and 2015. Consumer goods data cover the period 1998-2003. 2. POPULATION 2. 1 Population by Age 700 million Indians are under the age of 35, making India one of the youngest nations in the world. The population of youth is almost equally divided between men and women, and in terms of numbers is more than the population of Latin America and the Caribbean put together. The changing demographics can be attributed to a slowdown in birth rate during the 1990s as well as rising levels of diseases amongst the 30+ age group. The biggest attraction for international players is perhaps the sheer numbers that provide them turnovers that corporates dream of. The 5-9 year-age group was the largest in 2004 though growth rates have been dropping over the review period. By the end of the forecast period though, the 15-19 year-age group is expected to be the largest in a digression from the historical trend indicating that the country will age slowly. In absolute terms, 10-14 year olds, 15-19 year olds and 20-24 year olds grew by approximately 25% since 1990. The changing demographics has been due to the high levels of birth rate in the last decade resulting in a population that attained these age levels post 2000. The population above 70 years of age will more than have doubled over the 1990-2015 period. 97% growth is expected amongst the 80+ group over the 2000-2015 period. Migration to other countries, better healthcare and a slowdown in birth rate are expected to contribute to some of these trends. The median age of the population is rising, albeit extremely slowly. Death rates are dropping gradually with improved access to healthcare but it is also accompanied by rather high levels of birth rate. According to an Oxford University Press publication by Tim Dyson, Robert Cassen and Leela Visaria by 2015, shifts are expected. The median age would rise to 31 from the current 24, and the proportion of 60+ would rise from 7% to 11%. Table 1 Population by Age: 1990-2015 ‘000 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 0-4 yrs 114,799 119,235 120,974 117,342 116,462 116,324 5-9 yrs 102,289 110,845 115,921 118,296 115,260 114,758 10-14 yrs 89,781 100,560 109,302 114,583 117,137 114,226 15-19 yrs 85,268 88,870 99,696 08,541 113,937 116,575 20-24 yrs 77,264 84,180 87,878 98,790 107,722 113,188 25-29 yrs 68,307 76,098 83,001 86,771 97,607 106,430 30-34 yrs 59,422 67,262 74,926 81,753 85,361 95,802 35-39 yrs 49,661 58,435 66,152 73,656 80,244 83,504 40-44 yrs 41,157 48,632 57,281 64,854 72,146 78,395 45-49 yrs 35,384 39,977 47,346 55,842 63,253 70,294 50-54 yrs 31,1 25 33,892 38,442 45,667 53,980 61,191 55-59 yrs 26,547 29,144 31,917 36,391 43,422 51,469 60-64 yrs 21,023 23,942 26,496 29,242 33,590 40,300 65-69 yrs 15,507 17,879 20,598 23,047 25,711 29,807 70-74 yrs 10,547 12,112 14,196 16,614 18,870 21,331 75-79 yrs 6,274 7,213 8,471 10,146 12,127 4,023 80+ yrs 3,678 4,497 5,951 7,536 9,431 11,708 TOTAL 838,033 922,775 1,008,549 1,089,072 1,166,258 1,239,325 Median age of 21. 68 22. 45 23. 28 24. 31 25. 62 27. 05 population (Years) Death rates (per ‘000 10. 63 9. 49 8. 67 8. 07 7. 66 7. 49 inhabitants) Source: UN, Euromonitor Note: As at 1 January Table 2 Population by Age (% Analysis): 1990-2015 % of total population 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 0-4 yrs 13. 70 12. 92 11. 99 10. 77 9. 99 9. 39 5-9 yrs 12. 21 12. 01 11. 49 10. 86 9. 88 9. 26 10-14 yrs 10. 71 10. 90 10. 84 10. 52 10. 04 9. 22 15-19 yrs 10. 17 9. 63 9. 89 9. 97 9. 77 9. 41 20-24 yrs 9. 22 9. 12 8. 71 9. 07 9. 4 9. 13 25-29 yrs 8. 15 8. 25 8. 23 7. 97 8. 37 8. 59 30-34 yrs 7. 09 7. 29 7. 43 7. 51 7. 32 7. 73 35-39 yrs 5. 93 6. 33 6. 56 6. 76 6. 88 6. 74 40-44 yrs 4. 91 5. 27 5. 68 5. 95 6. 19 6. 33 45-49 yrs 4. 22 4. 33 4. 69 5. 13 5. 42 5. 67 50-54 yrs 3. 71 3. 67 3. 81 4. 19 4. 63 4. 94 55-59 yrs 3. 17 3. 16 3. 16 3. 34 3. 72 4. 15 60-64 yrs 2. 51 2. 59 2. 63 2. 69 2. 88 3. 25 65-69 yrs 1. 85 1. 94 2. 04 2. 12 2. 20 2. 41 70-74 yrs 1. 26 1. 31 1. 41 1. 53 1. 62 1. 72 75-79 yrs 0. 75 0. 78 0. 84 0. 93 1. 04 1. 13 80+ yrs 0. 44 0. 49 0. 59 0. 69 0. 81 0. 94 TOTAL 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 Source: UN, Euromonitor Note: As at 1 January Table 3 Population by Age (Growth): 1990/2015, 2000/2015 % growth 1990/2015 2000/2015 0-4 yrs 1. 33 -3. 84 5-9 yrs 12. 19 -1. 00 10-14 yrs 27. 23 4. 51 15-19 yrs 36. 72 16. 93 20-24 yrs 46. 50 28. 80 25-29 yrs 55. 81 28. 23 30-34 yrs 61. 22 27. 86 35-39 yrs 68. 15 26. 23 40-44 yrs 90. 48 36. 86 45-49 yrs 98. 66 48. 47 50-54 yrs 96. 60 59. 18 55-59 yrs 93. 88 61. 26 60-64 yrs 91. 69 52. 10 65-69 yrs 92. 21 44. 71 70-74 yrs 102. 24 50. 26 75-79 yrs 123. 51 65. 54 80+ yrs 218. 34 96. 76 TOTAL 47. 89 22. 88 Median age of population 24. 76 16. 19 Death rates -29. 52 -13. 55 Source: UN, Euromonitor Note: As at 1 January 2. Male Population by Age Males constitute 52% of the population. Half are under the age of 29 and are looking for earning opportunities. Though liberalisation and the recent NDA (National Democratic Alliance) government headed by ex-prime minister Shri Vajpayee did much to invest in infrastructure and create jobs, much of this has apparently not perco lated down to the lowest income classes if election results in mid-2004 (when the incumbent government was unceremoniously and unexpectedly voted out) are anything to go by. Not surprisingly, the 5-9 year-age group is again the largest segment, representing almost 11% of the total population. In relative terms, this segment has been stagnant since 1990 and has declined marginally since 2000. Due to a larger base, 15-19 year olds will constitute the largest segment by 2015 despite higher growth by other groups. In keeping with general demographic trends, the population below the age of 20 years grew the maximum over the review period. Dropping mortality rates and better healthcare has increased this population group. The median age of the male population in India is approximately the same as the overall median age of the population. It was 22 in 2000 and stands at a little more than 24 years in 2003. Much of India is a male dominated society, and even in urban areas, women are shouldering more and more household running responsibilities. On a lighter note, urban men are more conscious of their looks be it clothing or even actual physical features. One would find many highlighting their hair or even exploring a manicure or a facial massage in big metro cities such as Mumbai or Delhi. The latest corporate entrant to the beauty services business under the name of Kaya Skin Clinics caters to both men and women with clinics even in Dubai. This is a Marico India Limited promoted venture. There is an entire new category of urban men – â€Å"the meterosexual male† that is as demanding about clothes, footwear, music and even grooming aids or beauty treatments as women. In burgeoning malls, men are spending as much or even more as women due to greater financial independence in relative terms and the freedom to spend money on items of desire or personal use. The youth desire items such as cell phones, PDAs and other electronic gizmos. Footwear is another item high in purchase priority. Whether it is body piercing or permanent tattoos, it is all about making a statement. Fitness and sports-related equipment also catches their fancy. The coming decade from 2004 to 2013 will see growth in the 30-55 age bracket by 2%. This will translate into significantly increased demand for items such as travel and leisure, home and household items, lifestyle accessories and even alcoholic drinks. Table 4 Male Population by Age: 1990-2015 ‘000 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 0-4 yrs 59,160 61,431 62,314 60,391 59,897 59,773 5-9 yrs 53,002 57,354 59,926 61,095 59,437 59,106 10-14 yrs 46,682 52,240 56,672 59,329 60,571 58,960 15-19 yrs 44,611 46,274 51,849 56,325 59,034 60,314 20-24 yrs 40,457 44,130 45,829 51,433 55,942 58,675 25-29 yrs 35,848 39,901 43,545 45,268 50,814 55,247 0-34 yrs 31,216 35,289 39,246 42,842 44,475 49,798 35-39 yrs 25,991 30,655 34,636 38,494 41,955 43,397 40-44 yrs 21,137 25,386 29,959 33,846 37,579 40,840 45-49 yrs 17,895 20,428 24,595 29,063 32,849 36,427 50-54 yrs 15,631 17,003 19,497 23,552 27,898 31,550 55-59 yrs 13,346 14,462 15,831 18,258 22,165 26,325 60-64 yrs 10,533 11,826 12,925 14,266 16,58 8 20,254 65-69 yrs 7,660 8,753 9,948 10,992 12,271 14,405 70-74 yrs 5,127 5,833 6,779 7,820 8,771 9,917 75-79 yrs 3,008 3,398 3,956 4,692 5,527 6,303 80+ yrs 1,756 2,094 2,684 3,338 4,129 5,050 TOTAL 433,062 476,458 520,192 561,005 599,902 636,341 Males as % of total 51. 68 51. 63 51. 8 51. 51 51. 44 51. 35 population Source: UN, Euromonitor Note: As at 1 January Table 5 Male Population by Age (% Analysis): 1990-2015 % of male population 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 0-4 yrs 13. 66 12. 89 11. 98 10. 76 9. 98 9. 39 5-9 yrs 12. 24 12. 04 11. 52 10. 89 9. 91 9. 29 10-14 yrs 10. 78 10. 96 10. 89 10. 58 10. 10 9. 27 15-19 yrs 10. 30 9. 71 9. 97 10. 04 9. 84 9. 48 20-24 yrs 9. 34 9. 26 8. 81 9. 17 9. 33 9. 22 25-29 yrs 8. 28 8. 37 8. 37 8. 07 8. 47 8. 68 30-34 yrs 7. 21 7. 41 7. 54 7. 64 7. 41 7. 83 35-39 yrs 6. 00 6. 43 6. 66 6. 86 6. 99 6. 82 40-44 yrs 4. 88 5. 33 5. 76 6. 03 6. 26 6. 42 45-49 yrs 4. 13 4. 29 4. 73 5. 8 5. 48 5. 72 50-54 yrs 3. 61 3. 57 3. 75 4. 20 4. 65 4. 96 55-59 yrs 3. 08 3. 04 3. 04 3. 25 3. 69 4. 14 60-64 yrs 2. 43 2. 48 2. 48 2. 54 2. 77 3. 18 65-69 yrs 1. 77 1. 84 1. 91 1. 96 2. 05 2. 26 70-74 yrs 1. 18 1. 22 1. 30 1. 39 1. 46 1. 56 75-79 yrs 0. 69 0. 71 0. 76 0. 84 0. 92 0. 99 80+ yrs 0. 41 0. 44 0. 52 0. 60 0. 69 0. 79 TOTAL 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 Source: UN, Euromonitor Note: As at 1 January Table 6 Male Population by Age (Growth): 1990/2015, 2000/2015 % growth 1990/2015 2000/2015 0-4 yrs 1. 04 -4. 08 5-9 yrs 11. 52 -1. 37 10-14 yrs 26. 30 4. 04 15-19 yrs 35. 20 16. 33 20-24 yrs 45. 03 28. 03 5-29 yrs 54. 12 26. 87 30-34 yrs 59. 53 26. 89 35-39 yrs 66. 97 25. 29 40-44 yrs 93. 22 36. 32 45-49 yrs 103. 56 48. 11 50-54 yrs 101. 84 61. 82 55-59 yrs 97. 25 66. 28 60-64 yrs 92. 29 56. 70 65-69 yrs 88. 04 44. 81 70-74 yrs 93. 41 46. 28 75-79 yrs 109. 53 59. 33 80+ yrs 187. 55 88. 16 TOTAL 46. 94 22. 33 Source: UN, Euromonitor Note: As at 1 January 2. 3 Female Population by Age 58% of the Indian female population is bel ow the age of 29. Of this 45% are over the age of 15 years. Female population proportion is likely to go up in the next decade following stringent official norms for sex determination and abortion of the female foetus. The current sex ratio stands at 933 females per 1,000 males as per the last census. Considering the decline in sex ratio from the previous census in 1991, female infanticide is still rampant not only in certain backward rural areas but also in a new form using modern technology in urban areas. Women in urban India have come a long way since the expectations their mothers or probably grandmothers had to live up to. In the 1960s and 1970s, it was a rarity to see working women. It went without saying that female members of the household handled household running responsibilities. Few would be seen dressed in anything but a sari, the national dress. Smoking and drinking were strict no-nos. Even going to the beauty parlour was considered highly emancipated! Cooking was always at home and done by women. Sacrificing personal wants and compromise were desirable attributes. The scenario dramatically changed in the 1990s with India’s entry onto the world beauty scene. Suddenly, every woman wanted to look good or do something that made a difference to her or to someone else. The salwar-kameez is almost a universal dress code. Originally, a North Indian attire, it caught the imagination of women from every region for its convenience and comfort. Young women are much surer of what they want and how to get it. Domestic duties such as cooking are minimised or taken care of in other ways. They would much rather work or do something that they would much rather be doing. Western-style dressing consisting of pants and a shirt is much more common even in workplaces. Social drinking is largely acceptable though still not desirable. On the other hand smoking is still a no-no notwithstanding the rise in number of working women who smoke in public. More and more women today have access to some means of income be it small or large amounts and even take investment decisions or play a significant role in the decision making. Today, one can see a mix of all kinds of women ranging from the traditional conservative to the ultra modern sophisticate. Even the traditional conservative is surprisingly quite progressive in emotional matters pertaining to education or even careers. While women are now increasingly comfortable with their bodies and do not mind even flaunting it, they still would prefer striking a balance between home and work. With more and more women earning their own money, they are now almost equally positioned as bread earners in families. Most men find it difficult to deal with this situation since money and the way it must be spent (larger sums that probably go beyond household expenses) is still considered a male domain. But there is an increasing segment that is now taking investment decisions as well. The stock market boom in 2003 attracted large numbers of housewives who got into the act of trading shares, earning just that little bit extra irrespective of their socioeconomic status or educational background. The attitude towards motherhood is changing. It is now more a matter of choice than chance. Young urban educated women are taking parenting much more seriously. Previously, the first child was born at an average age of 25, today in some parts it is 32 years. Women-on-vacation is another phenomenon slowly becoming visible at railway platforms, airport lounges and even gravelled roads. Single, married, divorced or bereaved and aged anywhere from 16-70 years, women are on the move. As the population ages and more working women constitute the Indian population, there will be a demand for items of personal use and anti-ageing products and services. The number of women smoking or drinking is also on the rise. Earlier considered taboo, rising pressures professionally and personally have only contributed to this changing paradigm. Table 7 Female Population by Age: 1990-2015 ‘000 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 0-4 yrs 55,639 57,805 58,660 56,951 56,565 56,552 5-9 yrs 49,287 53,491 55,994 57,201 55,823 55,652 10-14 yrs 43,098 48,320 52,630 55,254 56,565 55,266 15-19 yrs 40,657 42,596 47,848 52,217 54,903 56,261 20-24 yrs 36,806 40,050 42,049 47,357 51,781 54,513 25-29 yrs 32,460 36,197 39,456 41,504 46,793 51,183 30-34 yrs 28,206 31,972 35,680 38,912 0,886 46,004 35-39 yrs 23,671 27,780 31,516 35,163 38,289 40,106 40-44 yrs 20,020 23,247 27,322 31,008 34,567 37,555 45-49 yrs 17,489 19,549 22,752 26,779 30,404 33,867 50-54 yrs 15,493 16,890 18,945 22,115 26,082 29,640 55-59 yrs 13,200 14,683 16,086 18,133 21,257 25,144 60-64 yrs 10,490 12,116 13,571 14,976 17,001 20,046 65-69 yrs 7,847 9,126 10,651 12,054 13,439 15,402 70-74 yrs 5,420 6,278 7,417 8,794 10,099 11,414 75-79 yrs 3,266 3,815 4,515 5,453 6,600 7,720 80+ yrs 1,922 2,403 3,267 4,198 5,302 6,658 TOTAL 404,970 446,317 488,357 528,067 566,356 602,984 Females as % of total 48. 32 48. 37 48. 42 8. 49 48. 56 48. 65 population Source: UN, Euromonitor Note: As at 1 January Table 8 Female Population by Age (% Analysis): 1990-2015 % of female population 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 0-4 yrs 13. 74 12. 95 12. 01 10. 78 9. 99 9. 38 5-9 yrs 12. 17 11. 99 11. 47 10. 83 9. 86 9. 23 10-14 yrs 10. 64 10. 83 10. 78 10. 46 9. 99 9. 17 15-19 yrs 10. 04 9. 54 9. 80 9. 89 9. 69 9. 33 20-24 yrs 9. 09 8. 97 8. 61 8. 97 9. 14 9. 04 25-29 yrs 8. 02 8. 11 8. 08 7. 86 8. 26 8. 49 30-34 yrs 6. 96 7. 16 7. 31 7. 37 7. 22 7. 63 35-39 yrs 5. 85 6. 22 6. 45 6. 66 6. 76 6. 65 40-44 yrs 4. 94 5. 21 5. 59 5. 87 6. 10 6. 23 5-49 yrs 4. 32 4. 38 4. 66 5. 07 5. 37 5. 62 50-54 yrs 3. 83 3. 78 3. 88 4. 19 4. 61 4. 92 55-59 yrs 3. 26 3. 29 3. 29 3. 43 3. 75 4. 17 60-64 yrs 2. 59 2. 71 2. 78 2. 84 3. 00 3. 32 65-69 yrs 1. 94 2. 04 2. 18 2. 28 2. 37 2. 55 70-74 yrs 1. 34 1. 41 1. 52 1. 67 1. 78 1. 89 75-79 yrs 0. 81 0. 85 0. 92 1. 03 1. 17 1. 28 80+ yrs 0. 47 0. 54 0. 67 0. 80 0. 94 1. 10 TOTAL 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 Source: UN, Euromonitor Note: As at 1 January Table 9 Female Population by Age (Growth): 1990/2015, 2000/2015 % growth 1990/2015 2000/2015 0-4 yrs 1. 64 -3. 59 5-9 yrs 12. 91 -0. 61 10-14 yrs 8. 23 5. 01 15-19 yrs 38. 38 17. 58 20-24 yrs 48. 11 29. 64 25-29 yrs 57. 68 29. 72 30-34 yrs 63. 10 28. 94 35-39 yrs 69. 43 27. 26 40-44 yrs 87. 59 37. 45 45-49 yrs 93. 65 48. 86 50-54 yrs 91. 31 56. 45 55-59 yrs 90. 48 56. 32 60-64 yrs 91. 10 47. 72 65-69 yrs 96. 28 44. 61 70-74 yrs 110. 60 53. 89 75-79 yrs 136. 38 70. 98 80+ yrs 246. 49 103. 82 TOTAL 48. 90 23. 47 Source: UN, Euromonitor Note: As at 1 January 2. 4 Fertility and Birth Fertility rates in India fell to 2. 9 in 2003. The decline can be attributed to the rise in mean age at ma rriage and the postponement of the child-bearing decision. The average age of Indian women at child birth rose to 28 years in 2003. In some urban areas and metro cities it could well be early 30s. As women seek higher educational and professional achievements, urban families are postponing having children. In many cases, one of the reasons cited is that they would like to know their spouses better before giving rise to a social responsibility. Amongst celebrities such as personalities from the film industry as well as fashion, adoption is being increasingly accepted. These are usually highly successful, financially independent women who cannot or do not find the need for a spouse to raise children. Men still take a back seat where adoption is concerned. A complete change in the way earning opportunities present themselves in an increasingly open economy and the transient nature of jobs, values and money have made Indians seek personal confidence and stability before committing themselves further. Birth control has received total government support irrespective of the political party in power. However, a large number of women may not be able to afford birth control even if they wish to do so. Large numbers of couples want to space or limit births but they are not using any method of contraception. According to official sources, a nationwide survey it undertook showed that approximately 16% of couples or about 30 million couples have an unmet need for contraception. High fertility is one important factor affecting the reproductive health of women. One out of every 75 women of reproductive age dies from child birth-related causes. Other reproductive health indicators also reflect a generally poor health status. Only 15% of mothers receive complete antenatal care, and only 58% receive any iron/folate tablets or syrup. Only 34% of deliveries take place in facilities, and, at best, 42% are assisted by a health professional. Though there are official government norms for promoting two children families, there are many holding public positions that have three or four or even more children. It is therefore difficult for lawmakers who themselves go against government policies to implement them with complete resolution. There is a wide disparity in the population growth rates amongst various states. Southern states have achieved a greater measure of success in almost stabilising their birth rate growth due to a higher level of education and literacy in general. On the other hand, Northern states such as Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Bihar represent a dismal picture. There is an unmet need for family planning in these states and about 25% of it is in Uttar Pradesh (UP) state. Is it a boy or a girl? The legacy of a declining sex ratio in the history of the Census of India took a new turn with the widespread use of new reproductive technologies (NRTs) in urban areas. NRTs are based on the principles of selection of the desirable and rejection of the unwanted. In India, the desirable is the baby boy and the unwanted is the baby girl. The result is obvious; the Census of 2001 revealed that with a sex ratio of 933 women for every 1,000 men, India had a deficit of 3. million women when it entered the new millennium. To stop the abuse of advanced scientific techniques for selective elimination of female foetuses through sex -determination, the government of India passed the Pre-natal Diagnostic Techniques (PNDT) Act in 1994. But techno-docs based in the metropolises and other urban centres, and parents desirous of begetting only sons, have subverted it. Outreach to the most vulnerable elements of the population is very limited, and the quality of services, in general, is poor. Additional constraints exist in the delivery of services. For family planning, the choice of methods is often limited and sterilisation remains the method of choice. Other approaches, including delaying the age of marriage and first pregnancies, and encouraging longer birth intervals, present major social and policy challenges. Religious and medical barriers exist in some areas, as do cultural issues associated with the preference for boys and denial of opportunities for girls and women. However, both the private and the public sector are taking substantial initiatives in the area of healthcare and there have been some improvements. Fertility rates fell by 23% over the 1990-2003 period though there was a slight increase in 2002. Some studies have shown that the increase was due to natural calamities in 2001 and 2002 accompanied by civil disturbances when citizens were mostly confined to their homes and had limited entertainment options. The fertility rate fell the following year by nearly 4% in 2003 over 2002 in keeping with the trend over the last decade. Table 10 Fertility and Birth: 1990/1995, 2000-2003 1990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 Average age of women at 20. 40 24. 20 26. 70 27. 20 27. 80 28. 33 hildbirth (years) Birth rates (per ‘000 30. 07 27. 45 24. 90 24. 37 23. 78 23. 40 inhabitants) Fertility rates 3. 80 3. 48 3. 06 2. 99 3. 02 2. 91 (children born per female) Source: National statistical offices, Council of Europe, UN, CIA World Factbook, Euromonitor Table 11 Fertility and Birth (Growth): 1990/2003, 2002/2003 % growth 1990/2003 2002/2003 Average age of women at childbirth 38. 87 1. 91 Birth rat es -22. 18 -1. 60 Fertility rates -23. 42 -3. 64 Source: National statistical offices, Council of Europe, UN, CIA World Factbook, Euromonitor 2. 5 Population by Marital Status There are only two dominant types of population by marital status in India – married or single. Married Married couples form more than half the population in India. Marriage is a sacred institution accompanied and governed by numerous social and religious customs and sanctions. Elders in the family normally arrange marriages in most of India and even with changing social fabric, parental acceptance and blessings are important. The result is a blend of the old and the new where brides/bridegrooms-to-be actually meet or see each other before the marriage and are allowed to exercise their choices. Marriage and child rearing is an accepted way of life and youngsters between the ages of 18 and 30 do look forward to settling down and getting married. An unmarried individual would stand out in the predominantly middle-class Indian society. However, acceptance of this is also increasing. There are a number of young adults, usually successful in their own lives, who choose not to get married or are unable to get married. Cracks and strains have started showing in a number of marriages due to postponement of the marriage decision, new income earning opportunities, changing lifestyles, new technologies and a sea change in attitudes and spirations in urban India. Hence, married families in 2003 grew at a slower rate than divorced or single families at only 1. 4%. Divorce Divorce is a little uncommon but is growing in incidence with young couples not willing to compromise or spend time on making a relationship successful. Interestingly, it is couples who knew each other before marriage that are seeing a rise in divorce rather than â€Å"arranged† family affairs that are part of Indian convention. There are instances of certain communities that are using technology (SMSs – Short Messaging System) to divorce their spouses by sending the message â€Å"divorce† thrice! The number of divorce cases filed in some cities reaches as high as 17,000 cases in Kolkata city with Pune having the least at 2,000. Some 9,000 cases are filed each year in Mumbai city alone. Widowers Widowers form a small 5% of Indian society that predominantly consists of youth. Rising longevity, increasing age at marriage and even social reform with respect to â€Å"child widows†, â€Å"child marriages† and â€Å"widow remarriage† have contained the growth of this category of the population. There are not too many widows/widowers in urban areas and even these generally stay with their families as in their sons or daughters. In certain rural areas, with lack of healthcare and awareness of a number of health conditions, widowers could form a slightly larger population segment. Co-habitation Co-habitation is still not viewed with much respect in a society steeped in tradition. In the Western state of Gujarat there is actually a quasi-legal arrangement called â€Å"Maitri Karar† that stipulates the responsibilities of a contract â€Å"friendship†. However, there are a growing number of homosexuals –both men and women, who have come out of the closet and are finding some acceptance. There are at least five lesbian groups in the country which are striving to provide dignity to this section of the populace. There is a large number who is probably not even aware of their preferences and go through much turmoil in the process. Yet, permissiveness is at an all-time high. 27% of the population in Bangalore; Chennai 28%; Delhi 22%t; Hyderabad 20%; Kolkata 32%; Mumbai 24% feel that both partners should be free to have extramarital sex with the spouse's consent. Delhiites are most likely to have done it at a younger age than their counterparts in other cities. Hyderabadis and Mumbaikars show the maximum inclination to infidelity. Adultery is going middle-class, to small-town India, going commonplace, even going boring. Dangerous liaisons used to be for the aristos and the plebs. Those in between, the middle classes, were tethered by moral chastity belts – only their fantasies could roam freely. Or it was all within the family, the extramarital dalliances, that is. The scarlet letter is now fading fast: stigma is getting passe and guilt for an increasing number is no more than a twitch. New technology is an important factor encouraging the phenomenon. Internet and mushrooming cyber cafes have helped, as have mobile phones and SMS facilities. Middle-class India is having a great time and most Westerners are shocked at the change. Table 12 Population by Marital Status: 1990/1995, 2000-2003 ‘000 1990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 Married 471,829 494,405 516,978 524,708 532,254 539,637 Divorced 3,093 5,010 8,059 8,214 8,365 8,510 Widowed 52,532 56,663 53,373 54,144 54,895 55,629 Single & other/unknown 310,578 366,696 430,138 438,100 445,958 453,729 TOTAL 838,033 922,775 1,008,549 1,025,166 1,041,471 1,057,505 Average age of women at 19. 00 22. 90 25. 50 25. 90 26. 50 26. 97 first marriage (years) Source: National statistical offices, Council of Europe, UN, Euromonitor Note: As at 1 January Table 13 Population by Marital Status (% Analysis): 1990/1995, 2000-2003 % of total population 1990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 Married 56. 30 53. 58 51. 26 51. 18 51. 11 51. 03 Divorced 0. 37 0. 54 0. 80 0. 80 0. 80 0. 80 Widowed 6. 27 6. 14 5. 29 5. 28 5. 27 5. 26 Single & other/unknown 37. 06 39. 74 42. 65 42. 73 42. 82 42. 91 TOTAL 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 Source: National statistical offices, Council of Europe, UN, Euromonitor Note: As at 1 January Table 14 Population by Marital Status (Growth): 1990/2003, 2000/2003 growth 1990/2003 2000/2003 Married 14. 37 4. 38 Divorced 175. 1 5. 59 Widowed 5. 9 4. 23 Single & other/unknown 46. 09 5. 48 TOTAL 26. 19 4. 85 Average age of women at first marriage 41. 93 5. 75 Source: National statistical offices, Council of Europe, UN, Euromonitor Note: As at 1 January 2. 6 Population by Educational Attainment Indians place a lot of importance on higher education as is evident from the number of graduates as well as the number of Indians doing extremely well in other parts of the world. Despite huge odds, the literacy rate now stands at more than 65% for the country as a whole. In terms of numbers, most of the population has some form of primary education. Kerala is the only state that has 100% literacy. Public expenditure on education now stands at 4% of GDP, well below the Kothari Commission recommendation of 6% way back in 1968. The private sector is now taking increasing initiatives in primary level education after having participated in a mixed fashion in the form of self-financed colleges and institutions of higher learning. This is one of the factors for higher growth in the level of education attainment at higher levels as compared to primary education. There are about 888,000 educational institutions in the country with an enrolment of about 179 million. Elementary Education System in India is the second largest in the World with 149 million children of 6-14 years enrolled and almost three million teachers. This is about 82% of the children in the age group. Compulsory education has been enforced in four States and Union Territories (UTs) at the primary stage of education while in eight States/UTs there is compulsory education covering the entire elementary stage of education. As many as 20 States/UTs have not introduced any measure of compulsion. Though education is in the concurrent list (ie both the Central and State governments are responsible for this social sector) of the Constitution, the State Governments play a very major role in the development of education particularly in the primary and the secondary education sectors. In order to facilitate donations including smaller amounts from India and abroad for implementing projects/programmes connected with the education sector, the Government constituted the â€Å"Bharat Shiksha Kosh† as a Society registered under the Society Registration Act, 1860. The Kosh was officially launched on 9 January 2003 during the celebration of Pravasi Bharatiya Diwas. The Kosh will receive donations/contributions/endowments, from individuals and corporate, Central and State Governments, non-resident Indians and people of Indian origin for various activities across all sectors of education. Table 15 Population by Educational Attainment: 1990/1995, 2000-2003 ‘000 1990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 Primary & no education 372,583 378,124 391,590 400,014 408,770 417,596 Secondary 79,103 121,874 163,622 167,434 171,221 175,064 Higher 79,478 92,137 107,140 109,858 112,464 115,123 TOTAL 531,164 592,134 662,352