XML Query Routing in P2P Systems | Paper Critique

XML Query Routing in P2P Systems | Paper Critique Critique on XML Query Routing in Structured P2P Systems (Leonidas Fegaras, Weimin He, Gowtham Das, David Levine) Rahul Rayineni The structured peer-to-peer network is a decentralized architecture which consists of large number of nodes that share data and resources with other nodes. They use a distributed hash table to determine the location of data. The nodes in structured P2P systems maintains a list of neighbors so that they from a overlay network in which lookup time for a key take logarithmic number of routing hops between peers. They offer better availability and scalability than unstructured P2P systems but the main difficulty in using these systems lies in data placement and query processing as queries are more complex. If the queries are not properly optimized routing and processing takes lot of time. This paper demonstrates about data placement, querying, and indexing large data repositories distributed over an existing DHT based P2P systems like pastry (Reference 4 and 6). According to Leonidas Fegaras, Weimen He, Gautam das, and David Levine, There are lot of earlier proposals like XPath lookup queries in P2P networks(Reference1) and Locating data sources in large Distributed Systems(reference 3) on indexing and querying XML data distributed data over a P2P network but there is no work reported on complex XML query processing with full text search that uses data synopses to selectively route queries to peers. The framework proposed in this paper is implemented on DHT-based P2P system Pastry (Reference 4 and 6). But this framework can be implemented on any P2P infrastructure. This frameworks works on summarized data namely structural synopsis and data synopsis for mapping XML queries. The high query routing precision, low data placement and low maintenance overheads are achieved through novel data synopses structures. This framework gives more accurate evaluation of textual and containment constraints in a query compared to bloom filters. The publishing process makes the documents available to other peers while unpublishing is removing the document by the owner. If the peer wants to update the document first it will unpublish the document and later publish it again to reflect the document updates. According to Leonidas Fegaras, Weimen He, Gautam Das, and David Levine, The XPath syntax is modified to add the predicate e ~ S, where e is an arbitrary XPath expression that returns true if at least from the sequence returned by e matches the search specification, S. A search specification is an IR-style Boolean keyword query that takes the form term | S1 and S2 | S1 or S2 | (S) where S, S1 and S2 are search specifications. A term is a keyword that must be present in the text of an element returned by the expression e. The label path of an XML document consists of child/attribute steps and can distinguish non-empty set of data nodes in the document. There are two types of data synopses used in this framework in which one is content synopses that contain structural summary nodes associated with bit matrices. The second one is positional filters which are bit vectors consists of internal structure summary nodes and their positions. To achieve good load balance with small number of nodes structural summary information and data synopsis are distributed over the existing P2P network. This framework is capable of finding all possible structural summaries applicable to the query with one DHT lookup. The content synopses consists of index terms along with their positions. Index terms are formed breaking the document in to simple terms. The position of the index term depends on the position of its begin/end tags. The position of the elements tag depends on the number of the begin and end tags preceding the elements. So index terms of a same element consists of same positional range. The positional bit vector consists of all the positions of the document. According to Leonidas Fegaras, Weimen He, Gautam Das, and David Levine, The search specification e ~ t1 and t2 for two terms t1 and t2 becomes true if and only if there is at least one document node returned by e that contains both terms. Using one-dimensional term bitmaps alone, such as bloom filters, and checking whether both the t1 and t2 bits are on, will give us a prohibitive number of false positives. The core operation in this framework is containments filtering, CF(F,V) which test element containment. Here F is positional filter and V is a bit vector. The output of the above function is new positional filter F. In the bit vector V, if there is at least one bit is on with in this range it copies all the bits in F to F. Data placement involves placing of structural summary and data synopsis. The structural summaries are routed to every peer using every different tag name. Thus, with a single DHT lookup we can able to find out all structural summaries matching the structural footprint of the query. The label path of data synopsis is used in placing it. Since Multiple documents consists of label path , the synopsis from these documents is placed at a single peer. Thus with single DHT look up we can locate all the documents. Query routing involves collecting and filtering documents all the way. The triples(peer, document, positional-filter) are used as communication between the peers. They contain id of a matching document and owner of the document along with the document positions. At each peer size of the list is reduced by removing the documents whose positional filter are zeroes. The network updates like node arrival, departure and failure are handled by novel methods when the node arrives the overlay network, it invokes the Pastry method notifyReady() and start sending and receiving messages. It receives all the information like structural summaries and data synopses from its predecessor. Similarly when a node decides to leave the network, it routes all its structural summaries and data synopses to its successor and leave the network. This can be done using one single message. When peer doesnt find a matching structural summary the predecessor node may be failed. In this case peer chooses another tagname and search request to other peers to find structural summary. The Id of the failed predecessor is used to check for the node failure. If the predecessor is failed it will abort the query and scan the list again for the documents and send a message to publisher to publish the data. The main advantage of this method it will abort only one query at a time and d ata synopsis is restored that is associated with the failed peer The closest work to this is done by L.Galanis, Y.Wang, S. R.Jeffery, and D.J.DeWitt. locating data sources in large distributed systems.(Reference 3). In this framework, the distributed indexing targets location of data sources which is different from the framework in this paper. The structural summaries are similar to the one that are presented in this paper. Here they use the tag name of the element that contain the text as search key which is contrary to the framework in this paper in which text was broken before indexing and label paths are used as keys. They dont address the indexing cost also. According to Leonidas Fegaras, Weimen He, Gautam Das, and David Levine, the framework proposed by Galanis (Reference 3) is more suitable for data-centric XML data rather than to document-centric ones, since the later may include large text portions inside specific tag names, which results to the routing of large parts of document to the same nodes. Another related framework is by A. Boni fati, Xpath Lookup Queries in P2P Networks. WIDM 2004. in which XML data fragments are indexed based on their path. The search key is the hash value of its path. This framework answer simple Xpath queries in one peer hop. The drawback of this framework is it requires additional hops to retrieve complex data fragment. Also this framework doesnt support XPath predicates. There are other distributed summaries for XML data like XSketch(Reference 5) which is used in selectivity estimation than in query routing. In the paper presented by J.M. Bremer and M. Gertz on distributing XML repositories (Reference 2), the structural summary is used as a global scheme to show how XML data are fragmented and distributed over the network. My opinion of this paper, it provides best framework for XML routing in structured P2P networks. The data synopsis and content synopsis used for indexing are better than regular bloom filters. The framework maps a query with full-text search into a distributed program that migrates from peer to peer. The index terms used in this framework are label paths which are better single tag names used in the previous frameworks for routing XML data. The containment filtering of this framework is efficient in addressing the containment relationships between predicates in a query. It can find all structural summaries of a query using one DHT lookup. It can handle complicated XPath queries using structural summaries. The network updates are handled effectively using novel methods which are very crucial in structured P2P networks. The data placement strategy gives load balancing in the system. The framework is easily scalable and it can be implemented on top of any existing P2P infrastructure. References A. Bonifati, et al. XPath Lookup Queries in P2P Networks. WIDM 2004. J.-M. Bremer and M. Gertz. On Distributing XML Repositories. WebDB 2003. L.Galanis, Y.Wang, S.R.Jeery, and D. J. DeWitt. Locating Data Sources in Large Distributed Systems. VLDB 2003. Pastry. http://freepastry .rice.edu/. N. Polyzotis and M. Garofalakis. Structure and Value Synopses for XML Data Graphs. VLDB 2002. A. Rowstron and P . Druschel. Pastry: Scalable, Distributed Object Location and Routing for Large-Scale Peer-to-Peer Systems. International Conference on Distributed Systems Platforms 2001. The Motorcycle Diaries | An Analysis The Motorcycle Diaries | An Analysis During these novels it can be seen how important is the background in there, whether historical background and social one were deeply connected in the way the plot was developed, creating contrast and reflection about that current time in both stories. Besides, even they were written in different years they are a critical informers about the lack of moral in the American society in the 20s and in the other hand, the economical situation in Latin-America -specifically in South America -; the poverty that took part during the 50s and in some way also modified thinking and performance of that society. In a very short review, The Motorcycle Diaries tells the trip of two friends the 29 years old Alberto Granado and the main and later revolutionary character the 23 years old Ernesto Che Guevara, both university students of medicine that travel from Argentina to Venezuela, go passing from Chile, Peru and Colombia. Here the criticism of the social injustices of exploited mine workers; persecuted communists, ostracized lepers, and the tattered descendants of a once-great Incan civilization are the main themes of the novel. Opposite to The Motorcycle Diaries, The Great Gatsby, written by F. Scott Fitzgerald, tells the story of Jay Gatsby, the Buchanan Family and Nick Carraway, the narrator of the story. The novel shows how the American society of the 20s recreated in the New York city was unwrapped in an environment of luxury, individualism, shallowness and appearances, all reflected in each of the characters in the plot of the book and at the same time are part of what Fitzgerald always idolized and wanted to get for himself. However, it is very important to remember that both stories were written in order to show to the reader deep situations that Fitzgerald like Guevara were involved with, trying to face them and leave a moral maybe. According to Che Guevara this trip was not only another experience gained during youth but also made of him another completely person; in his spirit: The person who recognizes and polishes them, me, is no longer, at least Im not the person once was (à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦). Our America with a capital A, has changed me more than I thought (Page 16). But what are the experiences that made of him a totally different person, as it was mentioned previously, the poverty of this continent, the one of he belonged and the political practices far away of the real needs of people changed his view of the life. According to Guevara the hospitality of Chile To meet in Chile means invite (to a house)à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ page 101 because in contrast with Argentina, Chile did not suffer the mix-up between Creoles and the Saxons that lived in the south in that country: creoles and Indians lived together in distances of each others. The lack of opportunities that Chilean people had for having a better life style was reflected and also how the community, reflection of society in general, disapproved the other people conditions coexisting in that way a kind of a mutual bitterness between the people who is a little bit better than the other one who lived in bad conditions, and the ones who are under the standard level of quality of life between the other people over their living conditions whose reproach them: and become a purely negative factor in the struggle for life, and consequently, a bitterness for healthy members of the community who resent their illness as if it were a personal insult to those who have to support them. (Page 70) Continuing in Chile and according to different issues that took part in the stay in this country; specifically in Valparaiso, they could find lots of social problems that the established government during that time did not solve, like the overcrowding and the almost inexistence of economical help for the community exposed in the following mention: is time that politicians and put less effort wasting time in the goddesses of their propaganda and more money, ( ), for solving the work in social profits. (Page 72). Moving forward in the story, the corruption, deceive, and the naivety of police and common citizens were involved each other. Moreover, placed in the North of Chile, Chuquicamata, they met a couple in the desert night who were communist, and where the men told them about the time he was in jail due to his political tendency; while the woman, his wife, followed him leaving their child with someone else until they got some money. This situation was particularly hard and sad for both Alberto and Che Guevara; for the last one added: (The couple) was the living image of proletariat in any place around the world (page 77) and according to Guevaras words being communist was considered like a sin while. That spirit produced the long for something better in the future, at least that was what the couple expected to get at the end, but is it worth putting your life in risk, in a work place where you can get a pulmonary disease and even dye, an leaving somebodys children alone just because of dreams? At this moment; at the beginning of the end, Granado and Guevara leave Chile for going on with their objectives at the north of this continent; and something else, even this is the goodbye of this long and narrow country Guevara keeps talking about the social differences evidenced and experienced by them and most of all, how the more powerful people in the history of this country, and in most of the countries for sure, applied his vigour over the rest of the common people immortalized in: the act of Valdivia represents the never deny effort of the men for achieving a place where to exert his irrefutable authority (page 85). Finally, some reflections written tell now the social situation of Chile, like he said in the whole South America and even worse. First of all the lack of awareness of health in everywhere, streets, hospitals and also in Chile existed low opportunities for working and the people; thereby, Chile showed a lower quality of life than Argentina, and no mattering those previous features of this isolated country, the life can be easily carry in the way people work hard and, of course, they do not belong to the communist party. While they were in Peru they could experienced that most of Peruvians believed that Argentina was like the land in which peoples dreams were made come true, and not only Peron was great but also Evita (Perons wife), where everything was good just because the Indians were not punished by the white man. Guevaras life, consciously or unconsciously, went around the pursuit of social justice, corruption and democracy. Since they started their journey and specifically when they arrived in Chile they were focused in different issues that embodied those moral behaviour in people and in the particular idiosyncrasy due to, nevertheless they went all over Chile, they could identified the cultural characteristics between southern and the more north people. And being in Peru they could be aware about their same life philosophy and ideals. However, some believes of those friends were not jut part or applicable in hierarchical relationships but also in the more typical important ones; between the community itself. When we kept on the route, the old Indian took off from his clothes a very appetizing corn and he offered it to us. Quickly we realized that he democratically divided into the same share out of the corn. (Page 115). In the same way, the emphasis of people who had been fired because of their political thinking, it is also an issue that must be not only for reader be aware of that but also Ernesto Guevara as itself and most of all to understand what was happening on that time; oppression against who were apposite to the government believes. Those situations were reflected in the couple of Chuquicamata and Puno a Peruvian indigenous who was expelled of the government due to the already mentioned facts. Summary from this fragment can be assumable during that decade South America was overwhelmed by the power of its leaders. Moreover, Punos words reflected about that current situation between the conqueror who have the nation and the forced ones who were trying to do their best in order to obtain what belongs(ed) to them; however, Guevara had interpreted those words like offensive to the Inca people: to themselves, so at that moment more than a potential Marxist el Che seemed an anarchist; against everything and everyone that subjugated to other, the Incas in this opportunity. At this moment, Guevara showed himself like a critical thinking person and at the same time a dreamer with clear aims for his life and for the other too. The Great Gatsby , like The Motorcycle Diaries, presented in its plot a social issue during the 20s, placed in America the story moved through the high society. The lack of values like honesty, friendship, loyalty, love, among many others is present into those peoples hearts. The well known American dream evoked the worst part of people for both the upper class and the recent one. But this is not just a fiction and successful story; whereby, the story itself was yet the reproduction of that society involved in individualism and shallowness. Therefore, that reality was embodied by Fitzgerald in this book. Throughout the story a big number of themes can be deeper developed. Every character is different to the other but all of them share the same behaviour, laying each other, being aware of appearances, and making the other pay for their own mistakes. Finally, whereas Gay Gatsby, the main character of the novel, it is important to focus on his personality and his life was developing since he worked to the rich man and then when he met Daisy and the goals in his life made them strong. After that, during the reunion with Daisy he showed for once one hundred percent honest and that proved the power of his dreams, which they came true partly but consequently, made of him a totally different person, ostentatious, layer and criminal and finally triggered his dead. For concluding, both novels are recognized by the whole globe, like inb Time Magazine on June the 14th of 1928 (page 5) due to his relation with the historical and social context in which both were written. The Motorcycle Diaries novel revealed the poverty in Latin American and in the other hand The Great Gatsby reflect the high American society before the Black Thursday in which the American dream was the symbolic icon of this society. Thereupon, some reflection can be drawing assuming that no matter how much money somebody have do not define what people are and there is plenty of evidence for that when Guevara told about the poor economical development in Latin America, however, he and Alberto could did their trip because the peoples help in most of the places they arrived. Opposite to that reality, Americas financial situation seemed good as well as the comfortable life for Americans, but if Guevara and company had decided do their journey to America they would certainly had to gi ve up to that odyssey, because people were not as generous as the one in the South. Expression totally opposite can be contrasted quickly, in order to understand the huge and deep feelings and thinking that separates our main characters. Expressions like proletariat and bourgeois page 125 can be easily found in the Latin American novel and that represented the social communist tendency of the writer. But in accordance to the social context of Fitzgerald novel, we can find lots of quotations which named luxury, fashionable, exuberant, money, and so on. So it can be easily to reader identify the environment in which this two celebrated plays were written. But as it was mentioned before, is it worth leave important thing away from you just for getting a dream?, or not just things but also people like leave your children them suffering in a place instead leave your dreams that make them suffering in a place where their dreams did not care at all. The best examples for each ones are the life in Valparaiso and Chuquica-mata. Or putted it in another way, is it worth to fight for a dream that maybe never would become real, until putting your life in danger, like Gay Gatsby did it with not worthwhile people like Daisy; and most of all, the characterization in Great Expectations suggests that money causes people unconsciously to isolate themselves from the rest of the world. Here you can reflect by yourself.

Midterm Essay Cj210-04

Midterm Essay Exam xxxxxxxxxxx Kaplan University CJ210-04 1. What are methods of inquiry and how are they used in criminal investigation? The main methods of inquiry are the reconstruction of the past and the discovery or creation of new knowledge. In order to reconstruct the past there are three sources available to the investigator. These are people, physical evidence and records. People are a good source of information once you learn the art of questioning and how to sift through the lies and deceptions. Physical evidence paints a picture or can accurately recreate a crime.Records are used to show an investigator trends leading up to the crime. Now the discovery or creation of new knowledge is what separates the skilled investigator from the rest. This involves instinct, experience, an open mind and what some consider gut feelings. You need to think outside the box. 2. What is the optimal mindset of an investigator and how are the concepts associated with the optimal mindset of an investigator manifest? I believe the optimal mindset of an investigator is to be wary of all. An investigator needs to believe all suspects are guilty until proven otherwise.Never dismiss a clue or lead and never let your guard down. The manifestation of this mindset comes with common sense, experience, training and traits that some people are just born with. I think some of these traits can be learned but the best of the best are born to be investigators. 3. What is the scientific method and how is it applied to criminal investigation by criminal investigators? â€Å"The scientific method is a way of observing, thinking about, and solving problems objectively and systematically. † The criminal investigator uses this process much like a mathematician solves a problem.They identify the problem then come up with a theory. Then they collect data through observations and experimentation. This then helps the investigator to draw conclusions. 4. Discuss the three primary sources o f information for criminal investigators and provide detailed practical examples of each source listed. The three primary sources of information for criminal investigators are physical evidence, people and records. Physical evidence is comprised of things found at a crime scene such as fingerprints, tool marks, bullets, casings, hairs, fibers and many other things.When it comes to people this includes friends, family, witnesses, victims, business associates and people that share the same recreational interests. An example of records could be phone calls, credit card purchases and video surveillance tapes from banks, parking lots, and just about anywhere you go anymore. References Osterburg, James & Ward, Richard (2010). Criminal Investigation: A Method for Reconstructing the Past. Sixth Edition. Anderson Publishing http://www. ncjrs. gov/App/Publications/abstract. aspx? ID=78300

A Study Of Financial Performance Based On Ratio Analysis...

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The ratio analysis is a quantitative tool to analyze the financial statement of the organization. The ratios are widely used tool to know the performance of the company; each and every ratio is finally end up with the meaning full information related to the financial position of the organization. The ratios are also help to the financial analyst to interpret the financial statement to know the strength and weakness of the organization as well as historical performance and current financial condition can be determined along with the liquidity position of the company. I have also emphasized more on need and importance of ratio analysis. Ratio analysis has been carried out using financial information for past 5 years. i.e. from 2009-2013, ratios like current ratio, inventory ratio , turnover ratio, gross profit ratio etc .have been calculated and interpretation has been made. In this report emphasizes on knowing the financial position of the Panneer Jewellers, Kundapura. The project title is â€Å"A study of financial performance based on ratio analysis† which means a process to identify the financial performance of a firm by properly establishing the relationship between the items of balance sheet and profit loss account. RATIO ANALYSIS INTRODUCTION Ratio analysis is a widely used tool for financial analysis. It is defined as the systematic uses of ratio to interpret the financial statements so that the strengths and weakness of a firm as wellShow MoreRelatedWhat Is Source Of Analysis943 Words   |  4 PagesPeriod of the Study Secondary data is used for the study. The required data for the study is collected and compiled from â€Å"PROWESS† database of Centre for Monitoring Indian Economy (CMIE) for the period from 2013 to 2017 which is a reliable and empowered corporate database. 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The effects of the Land Registration Act - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 10 Words: 2879 Downloads: 7 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Law Essay Type Cause and effect essay Level High school Did you like this example? The system of land registration inaugurated by the Land Registration Act 1925 was a laudable and important step in simplifying the way title to land was recorded and conveyed. In time, however, significant defects began to emerge. What were those defects and to what extent has the Land Registration Act 2002 provided a cure? Prior to the introduction of a system of land registration, the only way to establish a sellerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s right to dispose of a property was from title deeds, searches and inspection of the land itself[1]. The system of registered conveyancing, introduced in the late 19th Century and simplified by a body of legislation created in 1925, offered a single statement of title guaranteed by the State. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The effects of the Land Registration Act" essay for you Create order The Register purported to operate as a à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"mirrorà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢, reflecting the totality of estates, interests and charges affecting the land so that any prospective purchaser in good faith and for value could be confident that the title they acquired was absolute and indefeasible[2]. If any person suffered loss as a result of an omission or mistake in the Register, they were entitled to be indemnified for that loss (Gray Gray, pp.1288-1289[3]). However, it was soon apparent there was no perfect reflection of the state of the title to land at all. The history of the title did not appear on the Register as this was not relevant to the current state; neither did rights affecting the land which were capable of registration but had not been registered. Further, rights obtained by fraud appearing on the Register were not binding, and finally, some rights were protected without the need for registration if they could not easily be registered. These were binding if they coul d be discovered without looking at the Register or were matters of common knowledge (Carter, p.128[4]). Consequently, it was not possible to rely on the Register as the à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“complete record of everything that affects the titleà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ [5] that was envisaged. It was recognised in time that the 1925 legislation was poorly drafted in a time when registered land was seen as a à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“procedural adjunctà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  1 to unregistered land and the main aim was to minimise the differences between the registered and unregistered systems, rather than achieve a complete and accurate register of title to all land. It is perhaps for this reason that, despite introducing compulsory registration that extended to the whole of England and Wales by 1 December 1990, a large proportion of land still remains unregistered. Further, the Register did not reflect a wholly accurate picture of all rights and interests in the land. Too many valuable property rights remained unreg istered and this resulted in an unsatisfactory system of uncertainty. An important example of such unregistrable rights can be found in short leases for a fixed term of 21 years or less. The Regulatory Impact Assessment of 2001 estimates that there are approximately three million short leases in existence in total, with about 45,000 granted or sold each year. Of these, 6,500 are estimated to be commercial leases with the average new commercial lease term being fifteen years long1, although recent research has suggested that the average length of a lease for commercial property has nearly halved over the last 3 years from 12.8 years to 7.7 years[6]. However, under the 1925 legislation, these would only be protected as overriding interests. A purchaser for value takes subject to the overriding interest if it subsists at the date of registration of the purchaserà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s title[7]. This position resulted in the register being of little use to those dealing with commercial p roperty of this type1, and promoted a system of uncertainty and lack of transparency. A further problem with the 1925 legislation was that registration did not protect a registered owner against adverse possession of his property by squatters. Under the Land Registration Act (à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“LRAà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ) 1925, when a squatter took adverse possession of land, the paper owners had 12 years within which to bring action against the squatters before their right to take action was statute barred. Generally this involved cases of land theft and boundary disputes, with the RIA reporting millions of pounds worth of property belonging to local authorities in London being successfully claim by squatters in the 1990s and hundreds of cases per year being assessed in relation to plot definitions on new build housing estates1. In addition to providing a lack of security for the land owner that registration of land ought to provide, where a squatter has been in adverse possession of th e land, the Register does not accurately mirror ownership as it may be the case that the squatter has acquired title which is not reflected by the Register[8]. Although the paper ownerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s title may have been extinguished[9], the legal estate was still vested in him as registered proprietor. The squatter had to apply for registration and pending this, the paper owner held the estate on bare trust for the squatter[10]. The squatterà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s rights were protected as an overriding interest under Section 70(1)(f) of the LRA 1925. As there was no requirement that the squatter should be in actual occupation, they might not be discovered from an inspection of the land and may even be unknown to the Vendor, as was the case in Red House Farms[11] where the owner was unaware that the defendant was shooting fowl on his land. Interestingly, the combined effect of Section 75 LRA 1925 and the Limitation Act 1980 was held to be incompatible with Article 1 of the First P rotocol of the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms. The legislation should not have allowed the removal of the landownerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s property rights without payment of compensation, thus the Court had to reinterpret the statutory provisions in accordance with section 3 of the Human Rights Act 1998 to enable the landowner to retain title to the land[12]. A further area that arguably caused the most litigation and consequently, desperately required readdressing was the issue of overriding interests. Under the LRA 1925, these included à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“incumbrances, interests, rights and powers which are not entered on the register, but override registered dispositions under the Actà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ . These might include, for example, equitable interests that are openly exercised and enjoyed[13] (but may not be apparent from a single inspection prior to purchase of the property!). Of particular concern, s.70(1)(g) protected the rights of persons in actual occupation of the land or in receipt of rents, save where enquiry had been made of them and their interest had not been disclosed[14]. These rights were usually discoverable from inspection of the property but this has not always been the case, and it was not sufficient just to make enquiries of the Vendor, but necessary to make enquiries of the person benefiting from the overriding interest[15]. Further, any overriding interests existing at the time of registration bound the purchaser, with the exception of those arising under s.70(1)(g) which depended on the date of actual occupation[16]. Such interests as easements and short leases could, in theory, have been created between completion and registration which bind a purchaser, thus resulting in the problem of the so called à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"registration gapà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢. The LRA 2002 came into force on 13 October 2003, although the e-conveyancing sections will not be fully operational for several years. The primary objective of the new legislation, according to the Law Commission Report, is for the Register to be à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“a complete and accurate reflection of the state of the title of the land at any given time, so that it is possible to investigate title to land online, with the absolute minimum of additional inquiries and inspections.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ [17] This appears to be a rewording of the mirror principle which has been one of the fundamental aims of a system of registration, as discussed. Indeed, in pursuit of this objective, the 2002 Act brings in a number of significant changes which have had great impact on the problems identified with the 1925 legislation. Most importantly to that objective, the Act extends the type of transactions that are subject to compulsory first registration. These include leases granted for a term of more than seven years and assignments of leases that have more than seven years left to run. As well as providing greater certainty and transparency o f title, this will catch far more valuable commercial leases (whilst not affecting shorter, low value residential leases) and make the Register far more useful to those trading in commercial property. Indeed, the ultimate aim of the Law Commission is that all leases granted for more than 3 years will be subject to compulsory registration, and the LRA 2002 reserves power for statutory instruments to be made reducing the period after consultation[18]. Until such a time, leases of a period of less than seven years (with exceptions) take effect as overriding interests[19]. This is unfortunate as it may result in leases being reduced in length to avoid registration requirements and it again allows for a category of interests that may not appear on the Register, albeit a reduced one. The Act also catches leases granted to take effect in possession more than 3 months in advance (of any length), thus reducing the possibility of a purchaser taking subject to a lease where the tenant has n ot yet gone into occupation and whose interest will not be apparent from an inspection of the property. In addition, the Act now allows registration of valuable rights which were not capable of registration under the 1925 legislation, including franchises, profits ÃÆ'   prendre in gross, leases with more than 7 years left to run, discontinuous leases, demesne land and land covered by internal waters adjacent to England and Wales. It is however no longer possible to register a manor. These additional categories will ensure that the Register provides a more accurate account of all interests affecting the land. Further, all legal easements which are expressly created are ineffective unless completed by registration against the title of the servient tenement22, although provision is made for legal easements or profits made by implied grant or by prescription, of which the purchaser knows or could have been discovered from a reasonably careful inspection of the land, or which ha ve been exercised within one year of purchase22. Equitable interests are not included but these are instead minor interests binding only if protected by a notice on the Register. This reverses the decision of Celsteel[20] mentioned above. It also provides incentive for registration and again pushes towards a more complete and accurate register. However, despite the significant reforms, not all rights and interests will appear on the title. As was the case under the 1925 legislation, Public-Private Partnership leases and mines/minerals are not subject to compulsory first registration. Assignments or surrenders of leases to an immediate landlord where the lease merges, nor the assignment of mortgage terms are not caught by the new provisions[21], neither are transfers of property by operation of law (for example, the vesting of title in personal representatives[22]). Mortgages by way of demise or sub-demise are also excluded, although these are rare[23]. Arguably, the exclusion of these various rights and interests is incompatible with the main objective of the legislation, to provide an accurate mirror of the title. Further, overriding interests, although modified and reduced under the new legislation, remain an issue although some will lose their overriding status after ten years. Interests that override on first registration are contained in Schedule 1 to the Act whereas interests that override on a registered disposition are contained in Schedule 3. The most contentious provision of the LRA 1925, section 70(1)(g) is now far more specific and restricted. It is now necessary for the person to be in actual occupation of the land (reversing the decision in Ferrishust)[24] and receipt of rent or profits alone will not suffice as occupation. As before, inquiry must be made of the person who has the overriding interest although provision is made for persons who could not reasonably have been expected to disclose it. Importantly, under Paragraph 2(1)(c), a pur chaser takes free of the rights of an occupier whose presence would not have been revealed by a reasonably careful inspection of the property, where the purchaser does not have actual knowledge. Significantly, there is no equivalent of s.70(1)(f) in the new Act as it was decided that the system of adverse possession was not consistent with a system of registered title[25]. The new scheme of adverse possession reflects the fact that the basis of title to registered land is the fact of registration, not possession. Part 9 and Schedule 6 of the 2002 Act provide that Limitation Acts shall not apply to a registered title. Instead, a person who has adversely possessed the land for ten years can apply to the Registry for registration as proprietor. The present proprietor will then be notified of his application and has two years in which to recover possession of the land, after which the adverse possessor may apply for registration once those two years have expired. The effect of these changes are to make registered property virtually à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"squatter-proofà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ and they offer a good reason for unregistered landowners to consider voluntary first registration to take the benefits of them. Besides offering a greater security to registered landowners, they also solve one of the significant flaws identified earlier in the 1925 legislation in relation to potential purchasers who have no way of discovering a squatter has taken adverse possession. To further ensure that the Register is a complete record, an applicant for registration now has a duty under the new legislation to provide information to the registrar about any unregistered interests affecting the land which override first registration that are within the applicants actual knowledge[26] although unfortunately there are no sanctions for failing to comply with this provision. In conclusion, the provisions of the LRA 2002 have successfully clarified and uncomplicated what was accepted t o be a poorly drafted and out of date body of legislation. Whilst not ensuring every interest is included on the title to a registered property, the provisions have greatly widened and extended the scope of the system of registration, offering greater security for landowners, increased transparency and certainty. The number of rights that cannot be or do not have to be registered has been greatly reduced, and a significant number of steps have been taken to ensure that the Register is an accurate, reliable reflection of all matters affecting the land. Not all problems have been dealt with and whilst matters such as overriding interests continue to exist, the Register will never be complete enough for a purchaser to rely on without making additional extensive enquiries. Further, the registration gap issue will not be resolved until there is simultaneous completion and registration, which will occur when the e-conveyancing sections are brought into force. There are however proposal s in place for continued reform, including reducing the requirement for registration of leases from 7 years to 3 years. These must strike a balance between the objective of achieving a complete Register of title, and the protection of the rights of persons having an interest in the land who cannot register them or do not know to[27]. Burn, E H (2004) Land Law: Cases and Materials (8th Edition), Oxford University Press, Oxford (for cases/statutes) Carter, E, Jones, R, Morgan, G and Paltridge, S (2003) Law: Ownership Trusteeship à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" Rights Responsibilities, Oxford University Press, Oxford Cracknell, D G (2005) Land: The Law of Real Property (6th Edition), Old Bailey Press, London (for cases/statutes) Department of Constitutional Affairs Website: Land Registration Bill Regulatory Impact Assessment, June 2001 https://www.dca.gov.uk/risk/landria.htm [Accessed: 27 December 2005] Gray, K Gray, S F (2005) Elements of Land Law (4th Edition), Oxford University Press, Oxford Law Commission Website: Law Commission report: Land Registration for the Twenty First Century: A Conveyancing Revolution www.lawcom.gov.uk/docs/lc271.pdf [Accessed: 27 December 2005] Office of Public Sector Information Website: Land Registration Act 2002: Explanatory Notes Chapter 9 https://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/en2002/2002en09.htm [Accessed: 27 December 2005] PracticalLaw.com Website: https://www.practicallaw.com [Accessed: 27 December 2005] Wilkie, M, Luxton, P Malcolm, R (2005/6) Land Law (5th Edition), Oxford University Press, Oxford 1 Footnotes [1] Land Registration Bill Regulatory Impact Assessment, June 2001 [2] British American Cattle Co v Caribe Farm Industries Ltd [1998] 1 WLR 1529 at 1533E-F per Lord Browne Wilkinson [3] Gray, K Gray, S F (2005) Elements of Land Law (4th Edition), Oxford University Press, Oxford [4] Carter, E et al (2003) Law: Ownership Trusteeship à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" Rights Responsibilities, Oxford University Press, Oxford [5] Overseas Investments Ltd v Simcobuild Construction Limited (1995) 70 P CR 322 at 327, as per Peter Gibson LJ [6] Study by Nelson Bakewell and the Occupiers Property Databank, March 2003 [7] Section 70(1) Land Registration Act 1925 [8] Carter, E et al (2003) Law: Ownership Trusteeship à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" Rights Responsibilities, Oxford University Press, Oxford [9] Section 17, Limitation Act 1980 [10] Section 75(1) Land Registration Act 1925 [11] Red House Farms (Thorndon) Ltd v Catchpole [1977] 2 EGLR 125 [12] Beaulane Properties Ltd v Pal mer, 23 March 2005 (High Court). [13] Celsteel Ltd v Alton House Holdings Ltd [1985] 2 All ER 562 [14] S.70(1)(g) Land Registration Act 1925 [15] Hodgson v Marks [1971] Ch 892 [16] Abbey National Building Society v Cann [1991] 1 AC 56 [17] Law Commission report: Land Registration for the Twenty First Century: A Conveyancing Revolution, para 1.5 [18] Land Registration Act 2002 Section 118(1) [19] Land Registration Act 2002 Schedule 3 Paragraph 1 [20] Celsteel Ltd v Alton House Holdings Ltd [1985] 2 All ER 562 [21] Land Registration Act 2002 Section 4(4) [22] Land Registration Act 2002, Section 4(3) [23] Land Registration Act 2002, Section 4(5) [24] Ferrishust Ltd v Wallcite Ltd [1999] 1 All ER 977 [25] Wilkie, M et al (2005/6) Land Law (5th Edition), Oxford University Press, Oxford [26] Land Registration Act 2002 Section 71(a) and rule 28, Land Registration Rules 2003 [27] Hypo Mortgage Services Ltd v Robinson [1997] 2 FLR 71